!. Ses!,

. Weil, !la% nature% de% l'expertise,% la% manière% dont% elle% est% mobilisée% et% dont% elle% est% performance, 1997.

, psychologie! qui! traitent! la! question! de! l'expertise! et! des! experts!, 2006.

!. Feltovich and !. , , 2006.

!. ,

L. ,

, Les!aspects!relationnels!de!l'expertise!ont!été!mis!en!avant!par!plusieurs!auteurs!

&. Wulf, !, 2003.

!. Evans and !. Collins, !, 2008.

!. Gorman and !. , , 2010.

!. Huber, , 1999.

!. Engeström, !. Middleton, and !. Dans!-leur!-ouvrage, Cognition% and% Communication% at% Work

. Chi, . Glazer, . Farr-;-!ericsson, and . Smith, !1991collaborative% and% discursive% construction% of% tasks,% solutions,% visions,% breakdowns%and%innovations!»!(Engeström!&!Middleton, 1988.

!. Edwards, !. Dans!-la!-lignée!-des!-travaux!-d'engestrom, and . Vigotsky,

, dans! les! pratiques! récurrentes,! «!always% in% making%»! (Orlikowski,! 2006! cité! dans! Edwards, 2010.

, Ainsi! met@elle! en! avant! l'existence! d'autres! acteurs,! qui! seront! concernés,! à! part! l'expert! lui@même

. Afin!de!définir!le!contexte, !dans!lequel!l'expert!et!l'expertise!interviennent,!il!s'agit,!selon!lui

!. Social!!-!«, , 1992.

. Dans!ce!processus!d'identification, !. Hatchuel, and . Weil, !il!y!a!«!un%jeu%qui%s'organise%entre%la%validité%

!. Sociale!!,

. Comment!-caractériser!-la!-«!fonction!»!-d'expert!?!-pourquoi,

«. !exceptionnel!»!(ericsson and !. Lehmann, !, 1996.

!. Feltovich and !. , , 2006.

!. Contexte!-relationnels!»!, !, 1992.

, ! qui! s'établit! entre! l'expert! et! un! «!demandeur!»! d'expertise.! Il! s'agit! ainsi! d'une! relation! entre! les! deux! acteurs,! où! l'un! a! un! besoin, Ce! rôle! s'inscrit! dans! une! relation( d'expertise

, au! coeur! du! rapport! d'expertise!:! d'une! part

!. En, !nous!avons!constaté!qu'assumer!un!rôle!d'expert!nécessitait!un!apprentissage!long

. Les!-connaissances!-d'expert!-sont, ! selon! le! cas! et! les! profils,! caractérisés! par! la! maîtrise! pratique,! théorique,! systémique,! stratégique! et! prospective, ! Enfin

, Trois!grandes!catégories!regroupent!l'ensemble!de!ces!besoins!en!expertise!:! ! Le% développement% des% savoirs,! qui! comprend! les! activités! de! recherche

!. De!«!troubleshooting%»,

!. , ! inclut! les! activités! de! capitalisation! des! savoirs,! l'animation! des! équipes!des!recherche,!l'encadrement!des!spécialistes

!. .. , ( 231! 2.1.!La!prise!en!compte!des!aspects!collectifs!de!l'expertise!organisationnelle!, .1.2!Communautés!d'expertise!:!la!diversité!des!formes!et!des!modèles!d'interaction

. , .2.1!Les!enclaves!professionnelles!comme!unités!d'expertise!:!revisiter!la!«!relation!

!. .. , 2.2!L'impact!des!enclaves!professionnelles!sur!le!rôle!et!la!dynamique!de!progression!des! spécialistes!et!des!experts!

!. Modèle!de!fonctionnement!des!métiers!internes and !. .. , 3.1!L'étude!des!métiers!internes!à!travers!la!différenciation!des!rôles!, .3.2!Les!enjeux!de!la!différentiation!des!rôles!:!limites!de!la!Double!échelle!

«. .. !métier!»!et!«!ressources!humaines!»!, !244! 2.4.2!Cible!métier!et!fiche!de!compétences!comme!outils!de!gestion!à!l'interface!des!métiers!et! des!Ressources!Humaines!

. Dans!-ces!-processus!-de!-création!-et!-d-;-!en!effet,!comme!le!constate!hakkarainen!, . Hakkarainen, . Lallimo, !. Toikka, and . White, !en! faisant! référence! aux! travaux! de! Lave! et! Wenger:! «! experts'% bodies% of% crystalized% knowing% do% not% emerge% from% depths% of% their% mind% but% are% internalized% and% appropriated% from% historically% developed% expert%cultures%», vol.70, 2011.

!. Svejenova, !. Vives, and !. Alvarez, , 1966.

, ! les! travaux! sur! l'intelligence! collective,! sur! la! cognition! des! groupes,! sur! la! mémoire!

. Enfin, ! les! débats! sont! vifs! sur! la! notion! de! la! compétence! collective! (Amherdt,! Dupuich@Rabasse

!. Emery, ;. &!-giauque, . Dietrich, . Gilbert, !. Pigeyre et al., !, 2000.

!. ,

, ! les! communautés! professionnelles!, 1971.

!. Van!maanen and !. Barley, !, 1984.

!. Weststar, . Garel, !. Giard, and . Midler, !, 2001.

!. Lenfle, ;. Gunz, !. Evans, and . Jalland, !Or!les!études!, 2000.

!. Hirschhorn, !. Gilmore, . Ashkenas, and . Ulrich,

. Kerr, !Les!frontières!existent!et,!de!plus,!elles!sont!nécessaires, 2002.

!. R&d!-(koen!-debackere!, !, 1997.

!. ,

. Les!-enclaves!-professionnelles!-restent!-aujourd'hui,!-en!-grande!-partie, ! une! terra% incognita! pour! les!

. Ainsi, !nous!pouvons!identifier!deux!types!d'enclaves!professionnelles!:!d'une!part,!les!métiers%internes!

!. ,

!. ,

. La!-notion!-de!-rôle, ! et! les! relations! qui! y! sont! associées,! ont! été! longtemps! considérées! par! les! chercheurs! en! sciences! sociales!, 2005.

, Les! rôles! sont! des! construits! organisationnels,! ils! ne! sont! pas! monolithiques!

!. Ils!peuvent!être!constitués!de!différents!éléments!ou!sous@rôles, !à!leur!tour,!consistent!en! des! activités,! missions,! tâches,! responsabilités,! obligations,! etc.! Selon! les! auteurs,! la! frontière! entre! les!rôles!et!les!sous@rôles!est!mince

. Les!-débats!-sur!-deux!-notions, ! et! les! relations! qu'elles! entretiennent! sont! assez!

!. En!tant!que!ressource!(baker and !. R. Faulkner, !1991)!:!dans!cette!perspective,!les!individus!utilisent!

, !Ces!mêmes!auteurs!proposent!ainsi!d'étudier!la!différenciation(des(rôles

. Donc!-sur!-les!-différents!-«!statuts!»!-qui!-en!-ressortent!-(expert,

!. Sardas and . Dalmasso, !, 2006.

!. Sardas and !. , !nous!avons!élaboré!, 2004.

!. Gestion!a!-faire, En! d'autres! termes,! comment! instrumenter! notre! modélisation,!et!pour!quel!objectif

!. Initiation,

!. Francophone!-(chiapello and . Gilbert, !, 2009.

!. Martin, , 1997.

«. !indignes,%relégués%habituellement%au%rang%d'une%intendance%sans%intérêt%»!(chiapello and !. Gilbert, ! trois!:! ! les!outils!d'investigation!des!fonctionnements!organisationnels!! ! les!outils!de!pilotage!de!la!mutation!! ! les!outils!, 2009.

. Le!-spécialiste,

!. Par, ! ces! deux! outils! de! gestion! deviennent,! comme! le! dit! Moisdon,! «%une% représentation%provisoire,%autour%de%laquelle%les%acteurs%entreprennent%par%des%apprentissages%croisés% l'exploration% des% liens% qui% les% unissent,% des% conditions% de% leurs% activités,% de% la% signification% des% termes% qu'ils%manipulent,%et%des%chemins%par%lesquels%ils%peuvent%évoluer%»! (Moisdon, 1997.

. , 1.1!La!place!centrale!de!la!notion!de!carrière!dans!la!dualité!des!relations!entre!les!individus! et!l'organisation!

!. .. , 1.2.2.!Proposition!d'un!cadre!d'analyse!pour!l'étude!des!émergences!concourantes!des! domaines!d'expertise!et!des!carrières!des!experts!

!. Une!analyse!de!l'évolution!simultanée!des!connaissances! and !. .. , 2.3!Retour!sur!un!dispositif!gestionnaire!permettant!d'accompagner!les!carrières! exploratoires!-!«!Parcours!Innovation!et!Expertise!

!. .. D'un!domaine!d'expertise,

. Ensuite,

. Enfin, expertise! n'existe! pas! encore,! ou! si! son! développement! n'a! pas! été! considéré!comme!stratégique

!. Rousseau, . ;-!-«!creative!»!-(peiperl, !. Arthur, and . Anand, , 1996.

, entre! l'échelle! des! individus! et! celle! des! organisations!, 2006.

!. Larsen,

, !les!attentes!des!individus,!leurs!trajectoires,!etc.)!mais! aussi!organisationnel!(systèmes!de!carrières,!planification!et!gestion!des!carrières,!mobilité, individuel!(les!orientations!de!carrières

!. Amundson, ! autour! des! questions! de! planification! de! carrière,! d'évaluation,! de! contrôle, 2002.

. Elle!-réfléchit!-aux!-conditions!-de!-la!-mise!-en, ! place! de! politiques! d'allocation! des! personnes! aux! fonctions,!aux!projets,!etc.,!en!fonction!«%l'autonomie,%la%créativité,%l'individualité,%et% l'apprentissage% personnel% obtenu% par% la% construction% personnelle% de% son% propre%, % parcours% »! (Inkson, vol.26, 2002.

!. Defillippi and . Arthur, !, 2002.

!. Higgins, , 2002.

!. Peterson and !. Anand, , 2002.

!. Le!-changement!-de!-contexte!-social!-et!-financier and . Tous,

!. «!carrières!nomades!»!(cadin, !. Bender, and . Saint@giniez, , 2003.

. Des!individus,!d'une!part, , 1996.

, ! d'entrepreneurs! (Peterson! &! 'inconnu,! et! qui! présentent,! en! conséquence,!une!source!de!créativité!pour!l'entreprise!(Södergren,!2002).!! Or,!malgré!cette!importance!stratégique,!les!carrières, 2002.

!. Södergren, ! 41).! La! carrière,! tels! qu'ils! la! voient, 2002.

«. and !. «!embedded!»,!«!encoded!»!(blackler-;-!!-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-!-64, , 1995.

, Figure, vol.27

. Dans!-le!-modèle,

, Ces!individus!créatifs!se!trouvent,!de!façon!générale,!en!tête!du!développement!d'un! domaine,!soit!en!tant!qu'experts,!soit!en!tant!que!chefs!de!spécialité

. Dans!-le!-modèle,

!. Balisees!,

. Figure, , vol.29

. Figure, , vol.30

!. ,

D. ,

!. Tout, ! comme! nous! l'avons! montré! à! travers! nos! études! de! cas

, Gestion! Scientifique!, 2006.

!. Sardas and !. , ( 277! 4.1!Limites!liées!à!la!méthodologie!de!la!recherche!

!. ,

, ! les! satisfactions! recherchées.! Or,! malgré! les! insatisfactions! récurrentes

!. Thévenet, !, 2006.

!. Roger and !. Roger, , 2001.

. Ce!-paradoxe,

!. Prietula and !. Ericsson, ! la! prise! en! compte! d'un! rôle! d'expert! et! de! la! nature! stratégique! des! connaissances! pour! l'entreprise! !Feltovich, 2006.

. De!-la-;-hakkarainen!, ! prise! en! compte! des! aspects! collectifs.! En! effet,! comme! l'argumentent! plusieurs! travaux!, !, 1986.

, En!nous!basant!sur!les!travaux!antérieurs!(Dalmasso, !, 2009.

!. Eyherabide and !. , !, 2003.

!. Lefebvre and !. ,

, ! nous! avons! approfondi! l'outil! «

«. Parcours,

!. ,

, Nous!pouvons!évoquer!trois!types!de!limites,!qui!sont!liées!à!notre!démarche!méthodologique,!d'une!

!. ,

!. ,

. Le"groupe"de"recherche, MIPS"s'intéresse"aux"enjeux"de"métier

!. A. Abbott, !The%System%of%Professions!(p.!435p).!Chicago:!Chicago!University!Press, 1988.

!. M. Ackerman, !. V. Pipek, and !. V. Wulf, ! Sharing% expertise:% beyond% knowledge% management.! The!, 2003.

!. F. Aggeri and !. J. Labatut, ! La! gestion! au! prisme! de! ses! instruments.! Une! approche! généalogie! des! theories!fondées!sur!les!instruments!de!gestion, !FInance%Contrôle%Stratégie,!, vol.13, issue.3, pp.5-37, 2010.

!. K. Alexander, ! Scientists,! Engineers! and! the! Organization! of! Work, ! American% Journal% of% Economics%and%Sociology,!, vol.40, issue.1, pp.51-66, 1981.

!. T. Allen and !. R. Katz, ! The! dual! ladder:! motivational! solution! or! managerial! delusion?! R&D% Management, vol.16, pp.185-197, 1986.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1467-9310.1986.tb01171.x

URL : http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/2117/1/SWP-1692-12737256.pdf

!. J. Alvarez and !. S. Svejenova, Sharing%executive%power:%Roles%and%relationships%at%the%top.!, 2005.

!. C. Amherdt, !. F. Dupuich@rabasse, !. Y. Emery, and !. D. Giauque, Compétences% collectives% dans% les% organisations:% émergence,% gestion% et% developpement.! Saint! Nicolas/Quebec:! Les! presses! de! l'Université!Laval, 2000.

!. C. Argyris, !. R. Putnam, and !. D. Smith, , 1985.

!. M. Arthur and !. D. Rousseau, The%boundaryless%career:%A%new%employment%principle%for%a%new% organizational%era, 1996.

!. M. Arthur and !. M. Peiperl, ! Staying! Creative! about! Careers.! Career% creativity:% Explorations% in% the% remaking%of%work, pp.314-332, 2002.

!. J. Aselage and !. R. Eisenberger, ! Perceived! organizational! support! and! psychological! contracts :! a! theoretical!integration, vol.24, pp.491-509, 2003.

!. R. Ashkenas, !. D. Ulrich, !. T. Jick, and !. S. Kerr, The% boundaryless% organisation:% breaking% the% chains% of% organizational%structure.!, 2002.

!. L. Bailyn, !Autonomy!in!the!industrial!R&D!lab, !Human%Resource%Management,!, vol.24, issue.2, pp.129-146, 1985.

!. L. Bailyn, !The!hybrid!career:!an!exploratory!study!of!career!routes!in!R&D, !Journal%of%engineering% and%Technology%Management,!, vol.8, issue.1, pp.1-14, 1991.

!. D. Bakan, ! The% duality% of% human% existence:% Isolation% and% communion% in% Western% man, 1966.

!. W. Baker and !. R. Faulkner, !Role!as!Resource!in!the!Hollywood!Film!Industry, !, vol.97, issue.2, pp.279-309, 1991.

!. S. Barley, !Careers,!identities,!and!institutions:!the!legacy!of!the!Chicago!school!of!sociology, 1989.

!. Michael, !. D. Arthur, and . Hall, ! Handbook%of%career%theory! (pp.! 41-65).!

!. S. Barley, ! The! Alignment! of! Technology! and! Structure! through! Roles! and! Networks, ! Administrative%Science%Quarterly,!, vol.35, issue.1, pp.61-103, 1990.

!. S. Barley, !The!New!Crafts:!On!the"!technization"!of!the!Workforce!and!the"!occupationalization"! of!Firms.!CAHRS%Working%Paper%Series, 1992.

!. S. Barley and !. G. Kunda, ! Contracting:! A! new! form! of! professional! practice.! The% Academy% of% Management%Perspectives, vol.20, pp.45-66, 2006.

!. S. Barley, !. J. Orr, and !. E. , , 1997.

!. S. Barley, !. P. Tolbert, and !. S. , !Introduction :!At!the!Intersection!of!Organizations!and!Occupations.! Research%in%the%sociology%of%organizations,!8(Organizations!and!professions, pp.1-13, 1991.

!. Y. Baruch, !Transforming!careers:!from!linear!to!multidirectional!career!paths.!Organizational!and! individual!perspectives.!Career%development%international, vol.9, pp.58-73, 2005.

!. Y. Baruch, ! Career! development! in! organizations! and! beyond :! Balancing! traditional! and! contemporary!viewpoints, vol.16, pp.125-138, 2006.

!. O. Basso and !. M. Thévenet, ! La! gestion! des! experts! chez! Thales.! Entretien! avec! Yves! Barou.! Revue% française%de%gestion, vol.9910, pp.221-224, 2006.

!. S. Baugh and !. R. Roberts, ! Professional! and! organizational! commitment! among! engineers:! conflicting!or!complementing?!IEEE%Transactions%on%Engineering%Management, !, vol.41, issue.2, pp.108-114, 1994.

!. T. Becker, !. R. Billings, and !. S. , !Profiles!of!commitment:!An!empirical!test, !Journal%of%Organizational% Behavior,!, vol.14, issue.2, pp.177-190, 1993.

!. A. Bird, ! Careers! as! repositories! of! knowledge:! Considerations! for! boundaryless! careers.! In! The% boundaryless% career:% A% new% employment% Principle% for% a% New% Organizational% Era!, pp.150-168, 1996.

!. F. Blackler, ! Knowledge,! knowledge! work! and! organizations:! an! overview! and! interpretation.! Organization%studies, !, vol.16, issue.6, 1995.

!. N. Bobadilla and !. P. Gilbert, ! Managing! scientific! and! technical! experts:! tensions! between! institutional!logics!and!orders!of!worth, !In!European%Groupe%of%Organizational%Studies.! ! !, vol.283, 2013.

!. J. Bootz and !. E. Schenk, !L'expert!en!entreprise :!proposition, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01741710

!. I. Bourgeault, !. K. Hirschkorn, and !. I. Sainsaulieu, !Relations!between!professions!and!organizations:! More!fully!considering!the!role!of!the!client, !Professions%and%professionalism,!, vol.1, issue.1, pp.67-86, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00742928

!. S. Brint, !In%an%Age%of%Experts:%The%Changing%Roles%of%Professionals%in%Politics%and%Public%Life!(p.!288, 1996.

. Princeton!university!press,

!. J. Brown and !. P. Duguid, !Organizational!learning!and!communities@of@practice:!Toward!a!unified! view!of!working,!learning,!and!innovation, !Organization%science,!, vol.2, issue.1, pp.40-57, 1991.

!. L. Cadin, !. A. Bender, !. V. Saint@giniez, and . !de, !Carrières%nomades:%les%enseignements%d'une%comparaison% internationale!, vol.257, 2003.

!. E. Cantrall, !. D. Manly, !. D. Schroeter, and !. H. Wakeham, !The!Dual!Ladder-Successes!and!Failures, ! Research%Management,!, vol.20, issue.4, pp.30-33, 1977.

!. E. Cantrall, !The!Dual!Ladder!@!Successes!and!Failures!(contribution!to!the!panel!discussion!at! the! Industrial! Research! Institute! meeting! on! Dual! Ladders, ! Research% Management,!, vol.20, issue.4, pp.30-31, 1976.

!. W. Chase and !. H. Simon, ! The! mind's! eye! in! chess, ! In! Visual%information%processing!, pp.215-281, 1973.

!. M. Chi, !Two!approaches!to!the!study!of!experts'!characteristics.!The%Cambridge%handbook%of% expertise%and%expert%performance,!21-30, 2006.

!. E. Chiapello and !. P. Gilbert, ! La! gestion! comme! technologie! economique, !Traité%de%sociologie%Economique!, 2009.

!. M. Clarke, ! The! organizational! career:! not! dead! but! in! need! of! redefinition, ! The% International% Journal%of%Human%Resource%Management,!, vol.24, issue.4, pp.684-703, 2013.

!. I. Corbett, , 2010.

, de! gestion! des! connaissances! dans! une! entreprise! cimentière.! In! XIXème% conférence% de% l'AIMS.!

!. C. Dalmasso, ! Internationalisation% des% activités% d'ingénierie% dans% l'industrie% automobile:% les% dynamiques%d'acteur%et%de%métier%dans%le%processus%d'organisation.!Ecole!des!Mines!de!Paris, 2009.

!. C. Dalmasso and !. J. Sardas, ! Subjective! Investment! and! Identity! Dynamics:! The! case! of! R&D! activities.!In!ISPSO.!Philadelphia, 2008.

!. A. David, !. A. Hatchuel, and !. R. Laufer, , 2000.

!. David and . Albert, ! La! recherche@intervention,! cadre! général! pour! la! recherche! en! management ?! In, ! Les% nouvelles% fondations% des% sciences% de% gestion! (pp.! 193-213).!Paris:!Vuibert, 2000.

!. Debackere, . Koen, !. D. Buyens, and !. T. Vandenbossche, ! Strategic! career! development! for! R&D! professionals:!lessons!from!field!research.!Technovation, vol.17, pp.53-62, 1997.

!. Debackere, . Koentaad, !. B. Clarysse, and !. Rappa, ! Autonomy! in! the! industrial! laboratory:! The! dilemma!revisited.!The%Journal%of%High%Technology%Management%Research, vol.7, pp.61-78, 1996.

!. R. Defillippi and !. M. Arthur, ! Career! creativity! to! industry! influence:! A! blueprint! for! the! knowledge!economy.!In!Career%Creativity, 2002.

!. A. Dietrich, !. P. Gilbert, !. F. Pigeyre, and !. J. Aubret, ! Management%des%compétences:%Enjeux,%modèles%et% perspectives.!Paris:!Dunod, 2010.

!. S. Dreyfus and !. E. , ! Formal! models! vs! .! human! situational! understanding :! inherent! limitations! on! the! modeling!of!business!expertise, 1982.

!. N. Dries and !. R. Pepermans, !"Real"!high@potential!careers:!An!empirical!study!into!the!perspectives! of!organisations!and!high!potentials, !Personnel%Review,!, vol.37, issue.1, pp.85-108, 2007.

!. A. Edwards and . Springer, ! Being% an% Expert% Professional% Practitioner:% the% Relational% Turn% in% Expertise!, vol.170, 2010.

!. M. Elliott and !. W. Scacchi, ! Conflict% Management% in% an% Occupational% Community% for% Free% Software% Development, 2003.

!. Y. Engeström, , 2005.

!. Engeström and . Yrjo, ! Interactive% expertise:% Studies% in% distributed% working% intelligence.! Department% of% Education, 1992.

!. Engeström, !. Yrjo, and !. D. Middleton, ! Cognition% and% Communication% at% Work, 1996.

!. K. Ericsson, !The%road%to%expert%performance:%Empirical%evidence%from%the%arts%and%sciences,%sports% and%games, 1996.

!. K. Ericsson and !. A. Lehmann, ! Expert! and! exceptional! performance:! Evidence! on! maximal! adaptations!on!task!constraints.!Annual%Review%of%Psychology, vol.47, pp.273-305, 1996.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.273

!. R. Evans and !. H. Collins, ! Expertise:! From! attribute! to! attribution! and! back! again.! The%handbook%of% science%and%technologies%studies, 2008.

!. J. Evetts, ! Organizational! or! Occupational! Professionalism:! centralized! regulation! or! occupational! trust, 2004.

!. J. Evetts, The%Management%of%Professionalism:%a%contemporary%paradox.!Kings!, 2005.

!. J. Evetts, !. H. Mieg, and !. U. Felt, !Professionalization,!scientific!expertise,!and!elitism:!A!sociological! perspective.!The%Cambridge%handbook%of%expertise%and%expert%performance, pp.105-123, 2006.
DOI : 10.1017/cbo9780511816796.007

!. M. Eyherabide, !. P. Lefebvre, !. P. Roos, and !. J. Sardas, , 2003.

!. P. Feltovich, !. M. Prietula, and !. K. Ericsson, !Studies!of!expertise!from!psychological!perspectives.! The%Cambridge%handbook%of%expertise%and%expert%performance, pp.41-67, 2006.

!. E. Ferlie, !. L. Fitzgerald, !. M. Wood, and !. C. Hawkins, !The!nonspread!of!innovations:!the!mediating!role! of!professionals, !Academy%of%Management%Journal,!, vol.48, issue.1, pp.117-134, 2005.

!. E. Freidson, !The!changing!nature!of!professional!control, !Annual%review%of%sociology,!, vol.10, 1984.

!. E. Freidson, !. !-;-!chicago, and . London, !Professional%powers!(p.!241, 1986.

!. S. Gand, !L'organisation%des%dynamiques%de%services%professionnels:%logique%de%rationalisation,%cadre% de%gestion%et%formes%de%collegialite.!Ecole!des!Mines!de!Paris, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pastel-00738425

!. G. Garel, !. V. Giard, and !. C. Midler, , 2001.

!. L. Gastaldi, !. !-;-!-recherche, and !. Grh, , 2006.

, Transformations!du!travail!et!nouvelles!problématiques!pour!les!organisations!de!recherche, pp.1-15

!. L. Gastaldi, ! Strategies%d'innovation%intensive%et%management%de%la%recherche%en%entreprise:%vers%un% nouveau%modele%de%recherche%concourante.!Université!de!Marne@La@Vallee, 2007.

!. L. Gastaldi and !. P. Gilbert, !Transformations!du!travail!de!recherche!et!GRH!des!chercheurs, !In!AGRH.! Reims.!, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00263148

!. L. Gastaldi and !. P. Gilbert, ! Vers! un! modèle! d'analyse! des! instruments! de! gestion! des! ressources! humaines.! Le! cas! de! double! échelle! scientifique! et! managériale, ! Congrès% de% l'Association% Francophone%de%Gestion%des%Ressources%Humaines%(AGRH)%2007.!, 2007.

!. L. Gastaldi and !. P. Gilbert, ! Des! experts! à! gérer:! un! même! objectif,! des! pratiques! différenciées, 2008.

!. M. Gorman, ! Trading%zones%and%interactional%expertise:%creating%new%kinds%of%collaboration.! The!, 2010.

!. A. Gouldner, !Cosmopolitans!and!locals:!toward!an!analysis!of!latent!social!roles, !Administrative% Science%Quarterly,!, vol.2, issue.3, pp.281-306, 1957.

!. H. Gunz, !. M. Evans, and !. M. Jalland, ! Career! boundaries! in! a! "Boudaryless"! world.! In! Career% frontiers:%new%conceptions%of%working%lives!(p.!290).!, 2000.

!. H. Gunz and !. S. Gunz, ! Professional/Organizational! Commitment! and! Job! Satisfaction! for! Employed!Lawyers.!Human%Relations,!, vol.47, pp.801-828, 1994.

!. H. Gunz and !. M. Jalland, !Managerial!careers!and!business!strategies, !Academy%of%management% review,!, vol.21, issue.3, pp.718-756, 1996.

!. T. Gutteridge, !. Z. Leibowitz, !. J. Shore, and !. E. , Organizational%career%development.!, 1993.

!. P. Haas, !Introduction:!Epistemic!Communities!and!International!Policy!Coordination.!International% Organization, !, vol.46, issue.1, pp.1-35, 1992.

!. K. Hakkarainen, !. J. Lallimo, !. S. Toikka, and !. H. White, ! Cultivating! collective! expertise! within! innovative! knowledge@practice! networks, ! Learning%across%sites:%new%tools,%infrastructures%and%practices.!Routledge, 2011.

!. D. Hall, !. B. Schneider, and !. H. Nygren, !Personal!factors!in!organizational!identification, !Administrative% Science%Quarterly,!, vol.15, issue.2, pp.176-190, 1970.

!. D. Hall, , 1985.

, Human%Resource%Management,!, vol.24, issue.3, pp.271-292

!. R. Hall, , 1969.

!. A. Hatchuel and !. A. David, ! Collaborating! for! management! research:! from! action! research! to! intervention!research!in!management, !In!Handbook%of%Collaborative%Management%Research!, pp.33-48, 2007.

!. Hatchuel and . Armand, !Les!savoirs!de!l'intervention!en!entreprise.!Entreprises%et%histoire, pp.59-75, 1994.

!. Hatchuel and . Armand, !Comment!penser!l'action!collective ?!Théorie!des!mythes!rationnels, 1997.

, !L'action%collective.!Presses!universitaires!de!Franche@Comté

!. Hatchuel and . Armand, ! Quel! horizon! pour! les! sciences! de! gestion ?! Vers! une! théorie! de! l'action! collective, ! Les% nouvelles% fondations% des% sciences% de% gestion!(pp.!7-43).!Paris:!Vuibert, 2000.

!. Hatchuel, !. Armand, and !. H. Molet, ! Rational! modelling! in! Understanding! Human! Decision! Making:! About!Two!Case!Studies.!European%Journal%of%Operations%Research, vol.24, pp.178-186, 1986.

!. Hatchuel, !. Armand, and !. B. Weil, , 1992.

!. J. Hayes, !Cognitive!processes!in!creativity, 1989.

!. Handbook%of%creativity, , pp.135-145

!. R. Heinermann, !. T. Brown, and . !f.!r.!, !Opportunities!on!the!technical!ladder.!In!SPE%Annual%Technical% Conference%and%Exhibition, 1990.

!. M. Higgins, !Careers!creating!industries:!Some!early!evidence!from!the!biotechnology!industry, ! Career%creativity:%Explorations%in%the%remaking%of%work!, pp.280-297, 2002.

!. L. Hirschhorn and !. T. Gilmore, The! New! Boundaries! of! the! "Boundaryless"! Company.! Harvard% Business%Review,!May9June, pp.4-16, 1992.

!. R. Hoffman, ! Expertise% out% of% context:% Proceedings% of% the% Sixth% International% Conference% on% Naturalistic%Decision%Making, 2007.

!. B. Huber, ! Experts! in! Organizations:! The! Power! of! Expertise.! In! International% Conference% of% the% Academy%of%Business%&%Administrative%Sciences, 1999.

!. M. Igbaria, !. S. Kassicieh, and !. M. Silver, ! Career! orientations! and! career! success! among! research,! and!development!and!engineering!professionals, !Journal%of%Engineering%and%technology%management,!, vol.16, issue.1, pp.29-54, 1999.

!. K. Inkson, ! Thinking! creatively! about! careers:! The! use! of! metaphor.! In! Career% creativity:% Explorations%in%the%remaking%of%work!(pp.!15-34), 2002.

!. R. Kanter, ! Commitment! and! social! organization:! A! study! of! commitment! mechanisms! in! utopian! communities, vol.35, pp.499-517, 1968.

!. D. Katz and !. R. Kahn, !The%Social%Psychology%of%Organizations.!, 1966.

!. R. Katz, , 2004.

!. S. Khapova, !. M. Arthur, and !. C. Wilderom, ! The! subjective! career! in! the! knowledge! economy, !Handbook%of%career%studies!(pp.!114-130).!Thousand!Oaks:! Sage, 2007.

!. A. Koh, !Linking!learning,!knowledge!creation,!and!business!creativity:!A!preliminary!assessment!of! the!East!Asian!quest!for!creativity, vol.64, pp.85-100, 2000.

!. W. Kornhauser, ! Scientists% in% Industry:% Conflict% and% Accommodation.! Recherche, 1962.

!. D. Kouabenan, ! Competences! collectives! au! travail.! Psychologie%du%Travail%et%des%Organisations,! 6(3@4), pp.9-164, 2000.

!. A. Lam, !Work!Roles!and!Careers!of!R&D!Scientists!in!Network!Organizations.!Industrial%Relations:% A%Journal%of%Economy%and%Society, vol.44, pp.242-275, 2005.

!. H. Larsen, ! Global! career! as! dual! dependency! between! the! organization! and! the! individual, ! Journal%of%Management%Development,!, vol.23, issue.9, pp.860-869, 2004.

!. M. Larson, ! The%rise%of%professionalism:%a%sociological%analysis! (p.! 309), 1977.

!. T. Lawrence, ! Examining! Resources! in! an! Occupational! Community :! Reputation! in! Canadian! Forensic!Accounting.!Human%relations,!, vol.51, pp.1103-1131, 1998.

!. P. Le!-masson, !. B. Weil, and !. A. Hatchuel, Les% processus% d'innovation :% conception% innovante% et% croissance%des%entreprises!(p.!471p, 2006.

!. P. Lefebvre, !. P. Roos, and !. J. Sardas, ! Les! théories! des! Communautés! de! Pratique! à! l'épreuve :! Conditions! d'émergence! et! Organisation! des! communautés.! Systèmes%d'Information%&%Management, vol.9, pp.25-48, 2004.

!. P. Lefebvre, !. P. Roos, and !. J. Sardas, !Redynamizing!Trades:!A!Case!Study!in!Aeronautic!Industry, 2009.

!. O. Lelebina and !. J. Sardas, ! L'expertise! et! les! experts! dans! les! organisations:! une! approche! multidisciplinaire! pour! la! définition! des! notions! clés, ! In! Congrès% de% l'Association% Francophone% de% Gestion%des%Ressources%Humaines%, 2011.

!. S. Lenfle, ! Peut@on! gérer! l'innovation! par! projet, ! Faire%de%la% recherche%en%management%de%projet, 2004.

!. K. Lewin, , 1951.

!. M. Lips@wiersma and !. D. Hall, ! Organizational! career! development! is! not! dead :! a! case! study! on! managing!the!new!career!during!organizational!change, vol.28, pp.771-792, 2007.

!. J. March, !Exploration!and!exploitation!in!organizational!learning.!Organization%Science, vol.2, pp.71-87, 1991.

!. D. Marschall, The%Company%We%Keep:%Occupational%Community%in%the%High9Tech%Network%Society!(p.! 204).!Philadelphia:!Temple!University!Press, 2012.

!. D. Martin, ! Appropriation! des! outils! de! gestion! et! dynamique! de! l'action! collective:! propos! d'etape, ! L'appropriation% des% outils% de% gestion:% Vers% de% nouvelles% perspectives% theoriques?! (pp.! 29, 2006.

!. Publications!de!l'université!de!saint and !. Etienne,

!. T. May, !. M. Korczynski, and !. S. Frenkel, ! Organizational! and! occupational! commitment:! knowledge!workers!in!large!corporations, !Journal%of%Management%Studies,!, vol.39, issue.6, pp.775-801, 2002.

!. S. Meisel, !The!Dual!Ladder@The!Rungs!and!Promotion!Criteria.!Research%Management, vol.20, pp.24-26, 1977.

!. E. Michaels, !. H. Handfield@jones, and !. B. Axelrod, , 2001.

!. H. Mieg, , 2001.

!. K. Mignonac and !. O. Herrbach, !Managing!individual!career!aspirations!and!corporate!needs:!a!study! of! software! engineers! in! France, ! Journal% of% Engineering% and% Technology% Management,!, vol.20, issue.3, pp.205-230, 2003.

!. G. Miller, ! Professionals! in! bureaucracy:! Alienation! among! industrial! scientists! and! engineers, ! American%Sociological%Review,!, vol.32, issue.5, 1967.

!. J. Moisdon, !Recherche!en!gestion!et!intervention.!Revue%Française%de%Gestion, 1984.

!. J. Moisdon, , 1997.

!. D. Moore, !. D. Davies, and !. S. , !The!dual!ladder!@!Establishing!and!operating!it.!Research%Management, 1977.

!. D. Muzio, !. D. Brock, and !. R. Suddaby, ! Professions! and! institutional! change:! Towards! an! institutionalist!sociology!of!the!professions, 2013.

!. S. Nadel, , 1957.

!. I. Nonaka, !A!dynamic!theory!of!organizational!knowledge!creation, !Organization%science,!, vol.5, issue.1, 1994.

!. I. Nonaka and !. H. Takeuchi, ! The! knowledge@creating! company.! Harvard% business% review, vol.85, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/b978-0-7506-7009-8.50016-1

O. Connor, !. G. Demartino, and !. R. , ! Organizing! for! radical! innovation:! an! exploratory! study! of! the! structural! aspects! of! RI! management! systems! in! large! established! firms.! Journal! of! product! innovation!management, vol.23, pp.475-497, 2006.

!. W. Orlikowski, !Material!knowing:!The!scaffolding!of!human!knowledgeability.!European%Journal%of% Information%Systems, vol.15, pp.460-466, 2006.
DOI : 10.1057/palgrave.ejis.3000639

URL : http://seeit.mit.edu/Publications/Orlikowski_OKLC_write-up_2006.pdf

!. T. Parsons, , 1951.

!. R. Pavalko, , 1971.

!. M. Peiperl, !. M. Arthur, and !. N. Anand, ! Career% creativity:% Explorations% in% the% remaking% of% work, 2002.

!. Peiperl, !. Maury, and !. Y. Baruch, ! Back! to! square! zero:! the! post@corporate! career.! Organizational% dynamics, !, vol.25, issue.4, pp.7-22, 1997.

!. L. Perlow and !. L. Bailyn, ! The! Senseless! Submergence! of! Difference:! Engineers,! Their! Work,! and! Their! Careers, ! Between% craft% and% science:% Technical% work% in% US% settings!, vol.230, 1997.

!. R. Peterson and !. N. Anand, ! How! chaotic! careers! create! orderly! fields.! In! Career% creativity:% Explorations%in%the%remaking%of%work, 2002.

!. S. Pochic, ! "Le! manager! et! l'expert:! des! figures! imposées?"! In! Les%cadres%au%travail, 2004.

!. G. Poehnell and !. N. Amundson, ! CareerCraft:! Engaging! with,! energizing,! and! empowering! career! creativity.!Career%creativity:%Explorations%in%the%remaking%of%work, pp.105-122, 2002.

!. G. Radaelli, !. M. Guerci, !. C. Stefano, and !. A. Shani, !Intervention!Research!as!Management!Research! in!Practice:!Learning!from!a!Case!in!the!Fashion!Design!Industry.!British%Journal%of%Management, 2012.

!. J. Raelin, The! Clash! of! Culture:! Managers! Managing! Professionals.! Harvard%Business%School%Press, 1986.

!. M. Ramspacher, !Gérer!les!experts,!une!gageure.!Les%Echos%Business, vol.38, 2013.

!. A. Roger and !. P. Roger, ! Rôle! et! place! des! experts! dans! une! société! de! l'information, ! In! AGRH%, 2001.

!. P. Roos, ! Rationalisation% de% l'activité% et% recomposition% des% métiers% de% conception :% diagnostic,% modélisation% et% structuration% des% dynamiques% de% métier% dans% les% services% d'ingénierie% aéronautique.! CGS.!Ecole!des!Mines!de!Paris, 2006.

!. D. Rousseau, ! Psychological% contracts% in% organizations:% Understanding% written% and% unwritten% agreements, 1995.

!. B. Roy, !Science!de!la!decision!ou!science!de!l'aide!à!la!decision, !Revue%internationale%de%systémique,!, vol.6, issue.5, pp.497-529, 1992.

!. D. Rubenstein, !Employment!class!action!against!3M!advances!on!appeal, 1999.

!. G. Sacco and !. W. Knopka, !Restructuring!the!dual!ladder!at!Goodyear.!Research%Management, vol.26, pp.36-41, 1983.

!. G. Salaman, !Two!occupational!communities:!examples!of!a!remarkable!convergence!of!work!and! non@work, !The%Sociological%Review,!, vol.19, issue.3, pp.389-407, 1971.

!. G. Salaman, ! Community% and% occupation:% An% exploration% of% work/leisure% relationships!, 1974.

!. P. Sandiford and !. D. Seymour, ! The! concept! of! occupational! community! revisited:! analytical! and! managerial! implications! in! face@to@face! service! occupations.! Work, % Employment% &% Society,!, vol.21, issue.2, pp.209-226, 2007.

!. J. Sardas, ! Ingénierie! intégrée! et! mutation! des! métiers! de! la! conception.! Annales% des% Mines% 9%, 1997.

. Réalités%industrielles,

!. J. Sardas and !. C. Dalmasso, !Recomposition!des!métiers,!tentatives!de!polyvalence!et!dynamiques! identitaires, !In!Colloque%AIPTLF.!Hammamet.!, 2006.

!. J. Sardas, !. P. Lefebvre, and !. P. Roos, ! Structuration! et! management! des! groupes! professionnels! internes.!In!Savoirs,%travail%et%organisation%9%Sociologie%des%Groupes%Professionnels.!Versailles, 2004.

!. E. Schein, !Individuals!and!careers, !Handbook%of%organizational%behavior!, pp.155-171, 1987.

!. D. Schön, . !a.!-;-!the%reflective%practitioner, and . London, , 1983.

!. D. Schroeter, !The!Dual!Ladder!@!Successes!and!Failures!(contribution!to!the!panel!discussion!at! the!Industrial!Research!Institute!meeting!on!Dual!Ladders, vol.20, pp.31-32, 1976.

!. L. Sié and !. A. Yakhlef, !Passion!and!expertise!knowledge!transfer, !Journal%of%Knowledge%Management,!, vol.13, issue.4, pp.175-186, 2009.

!. J. Smith and !. T. Szabo, ! The! dual! ladder! @! Importance! of! flexibility,! job! content! and! individual! temperament.!Research%Management, vol.20, pp.20-23, 1977.

!. B. Södergren, ! Paths! to! Creativity! for! Knowledge@Intensive! Workers.! In! Career% Creativity.% Explorations%in%the%Remaking%of%Work!, pp.35-57, 2002.

!. J. Sorensen and !. T. Sorensen, ! The! conflict! of! professionals! in! bureaucratic! organizations, ! Administrative%Science%Quarterly,!, vol.19, issue.1, pp.98-106, 1974.

!. S. Svejenova, !. L. Vives, and !. J. Alvarez, ! At! the! crossroads! of! agency! and! communion:! Defining! the! shared!career, vol.31, pp.707-725, 2010.

!. P. Tolbert, ! Occupations,! organizations,! and! boundaryless! careers.! In! The% boundaryless% career:% A% new%employment%Principle%for%a%New%Organizational%Era!, pp.331-349, 1996.

!. J. Trépot, !La%sociologie%de%l'expertise.!Paris:!"Que!sais@je, 1996.

!. J. Van!maanen, !Identity!work!and!control!in!occupational!communities, 2010.

!. J. Van!maanen and !. S. Barley, !Occupational!communities:!Culture!and!control!in!organizations, 1982.

!. J. Van!-maanen and !. S. Barley, ! Occupational! communities:! Culture! and! control! in! organizations.! Research%in%Organizational%Behavior, pp.287-365, 1984.

!. J. Wallace and !. E. , ! Organizational! and! professional! commitment! in! professional! and! nonprofessional! organizations, !Administrative%Science%Quarterly,!, vol.40, issue.2, pp.228-255, 1995.

!. M. Waters, !Collegiality,!Bureaucratization,!and!Professionalization:!A!Weberian!Analysis.!American% Journal%of%Sociology, vol.94, pp.945-972, 1989.

!. M. Weber, !Economy%and%Society:%An%Outline%of%Interpretive%Sociology, 1956.

!. D. Wegner, !Transactive!Memory :!A!Contemporary!Analysis!of!the!Group!Mind, !Theories%of%group%behavior!, pp.185-208, 1986.

!. K. Weick and !. E. , ! Enactment! and! the! Boundaryless! Career:! Organizing! as! as! we! Work, ! The% boundaryless%career:%A%New%Employment%Principle%for%a%New%Organizational%Era!, pp.40-57, 1996.

!. R. Weisberg, ! Modes! of! expertise! in! creative! thinking:! evidence! from! case! studies.! In! The% Cambridge% handbook% of% expertise% and% expert% performance!, pp.761-787, 2006.

!. J. Weststar, !Occupational%Community:%Opportunity%or%Threat%to%Collective%Action%among%Video%Game% Developers?!Retrieved!from!, 2011.

!. P. Whalley and !. S. Barley, !Technical!Work!in!the!Division!of!Labor:!Stalking!the!Wily!Anomaly, ! Between%craft%and%science:%Technical%work%in%US%settings!, pp.23-52, 1997.

. Cornell!university!press,

!. Y. Wiener, !Commitment!in!organizations:!A!normative!view.!Academy%of%management%review, vol.7, pp.418-428, 1982.

!. M. Wolff, !Revamping!the!dual!ladder!at!General!Mills.!Research%Management, !, vol.22, issue.6, pp.8-11, 1979.

!. I. Zander and !. Ö. Sölvell, ! Cross@border! innovation! in! the! multinational! corporation:! A! research! agenda, !Journal%of%International%Studies%of%Management%&%Organization,!, vol.30, issue.2, pp.44-67, 2000.

!. ,