, Travaux de recherche ayant contribuéà la méta-modélisation des processus 107

. .. Produit, 108 6.1.3.1 Comment est définie la modélisation des données produit dans notre contexte de recherche ?, 3État de l'art sur les techniques de modélisation des données

, Quels sont les travaux de recherche qui ont contribuéà la méta-modélisation des produits ?

. .. , 110 6.1.4.1 Concernant le choix du langage de modélisation, Synthèse et discussion de l'état de l'art sur la modélisation des processus et des données produit, vol.112

. .. , 114 6.1.5.1 Identification des différents cas d'utilisation du méta-modèle PP . . . . . 115 6.1.5.2 Sémantique du méta-modèle PP

, 2.2.1 Comment est définie la traçabilité des décisions dans notre contexte de recherche ?

, Travaux de recherche ayant contribuéà la méta-modélisation des traces

, Synthèse et discussion de l'état de l'art sur les techniques de traçabilité, p.125

.. .. Conclusion,

, Module d'aideà la décision 127

, Introduction : vers des systèmes intelligents d'aideà la décision

?. .. , 132 7.3.1 Quelle est la différence entre l'intelligence artificielle, la fouille de données, l'apprentissage automatique, la fouille de processus et la business intelligence, p.132

. .. , 3.2.1 Fouille des règles d'association (Association rule mining), p.135

). .. , 138 7.3.3.2 Apprentissage non-supervisé (Unsupervised learning), p.141

. .. , 143 7.3.4.2 Contrôle de conformité (Conformance checking), Techniques de fouille de processus (Process mining)

, Synthèse et discussion de l'état de l'art sur les techniques de l'intelligence artificielle et de la business intelligence supportant la prise de décision, p.147

. .. Et-locale, 153 7.4.3 Phase d'exploration des différents patterns existants dans un journal desévènements 158 7.4.4 Phase de la découverte des règles de décision, Module d'aideà la décision : Aideà la décision globale

. .. , Sous-phase 2 : fouille des règles de décision (Decision Mining), p.165

, 122 6.17.dPhase de l'utilisation de la trace

, Représentation IDEF0 de la traçabilité des décisions dans notre contexte, p.123

. .. , Spécialisation des méta-modèles de trace selon le domaine d'étude, p.126

, Représentation IDEF0 des deux types de la prise de décision. Nous n'avons présenté que la ressource utilisée par la première activité de chaque processus pour ne pas charger la figure, p.130

, Les deux niveaux de la prise de décision : local et global. Le premier est exprimé en IDEF0 pour souligner les paramètres de l'activité et le deuxième est exprimé en BPMN pour souligner la présence des jonctions

, Représentation IDEF0 de l'activité de prise de décision

, 5.a L'utilisation des techniques de l'apprentissage automatique pour développer les capacités d'un système artificiellement intelligent, Combinaison des forces de l'apprentissage automatique et de la fouille de données pour construire des systèmes artificiellement intelligents, p.133, 2017.

, b L'utilisation des techniques de l'apprentissage automatique pour explorer les données, 2017.

, c Différence entre les domaines de fouille de données et de l'apprentissage automatique selon htpps://iotechnologies.com

. Différence-entre-la-fouille-de-processus and . .. La-business-intelligence, 134 7.6.b Combinaison des techniques de la fouille de données et de la modélisation des processus pour des fins de fouille de processus (fluxicon.com)

. Exemple-d&apos;une-séquence-d&apos;événements, Noter que < (a) (b) (d) (e g) > est une sous-séquence de < (a) (b c) (d) (e f g) >

.. .. Processus, 139 7.8.b Représentation IDEF0 des deux phases de l'apprentissage supervisé, p.139, 2007.

.. .. Processus, Exemple de la classification des e-mails selon certaines caractéristiques x et y. La classe en vert regrouppe les e-mails non-spam et la classe en rouge regroupe les e-mails spam

, Exemple de l'estimation du prix d'une voiture selon une caractéristique x, p.139

. .. Processus, 10.bProcessus de l'apprentissage non-supervisé selon Halkidi et al, p.140, 2001.

. Objectif and . .. De-processus-de-la-classification-semi-supervisée, 141 7.11.aObjectif de la classification semi-supervisée avec deux classes connuesà priori (orange et bleue)

, Le partitionnement semi-supervisé avec les contraintes must-link (en vert continu) et cannot-link (en rouge pointillé)

. .. Processus, 142 7.13.aProcessus de l'apprentissage par renforcement selon Sutton et al, p.142, 1996.

L. and .. .. , 14.aExemple d'un journal desévénements (Event log) [Van der Aalst, p.143, 2005.

. Nowak, , vol.6, 2004.

. Moones, , vol.6, 2011.

. Thom, , vol.6, 2005.

, 9 -Comparaison des différents méta-modèlesétudiés par rapportà nos critères de recherche. Le méta-modèle que nous cherchons doit occuper toute la surface du radar, vol.6

. Moones, ] répondent parfaitementà nos deux critères. Ils permettent, en effet, de capturer la version de la donnée produità travers les concepts "version number, propriété de la classe Product Data (versioned), Les méta-modèles de Noël and Roucoules, vol.129, p.132, 2007.

, 3.2.1 Fouille des règles d'association (Association rule mining), p.135

). .. , 138 7.3.3.2 Apprentissage non-supervisé (Unsupervised learning), p.141

. .. , 143 7.3.4.1 Découverte des processus (Process discovery), Techniques de fouille de processus (Process mining)

, Synthèse et discussion de l'état de l'art sur les techniques de l'intelligence artificielle et de la business intelligence supportant la prise de décision, p.147

. .. Et-locale, 153 7.4.3 Phase d'exploration des différents patterns existants dans un journal desévènements158 7.4.4 Phase de la découverte des règles de décision, Module d'aideà la décision : Aideà la décision globale

. .. , Sous-phase 2 : fouille des règles de décision (Decision Mining), p.165

, Prédiction des paramètres des activités les plus adaptés au contexte de la décision, p.171

, Synthèse et conclusion du module d'aideà la décision

. .. , Proposition : application permettant la gestion dynamique des changements contextuels

.. .. Synthèse, Méta-modèle du langage MXML, 2014.

, FIGURE 7.24 -Méta-modèles des deux langages compatibles avec les outils de fouille de processus

. Selon-le-méta-modèle-xes-se-voit, le présent travail de recherche, nous souhaitons simplifier cette représentation en ne considérant que la deuxième instance de l'activité dont la transition est "complete". Cette simplification est justifiée comme suit : -Les algorithmes de l'apprentissage apprennentà partir d'un ensemble de traces finies, dont le résultat de l'exécution de leurs activités est bien connu, -Le fait de considérer des traces qui sont encore en cours d'exécution impacte négativement le résultat de la fouille, activité A 1 -ouévénement A 1

F. De-ce, nous adoptons la représentation simplifiée de la Figure 7.25.b pour une activité A 1 . Notons que 7.31.a. Modèle généré par l'algorithme alpha (l'algorithme alpha++ génère le même modèle) 7.31.b. Modèle généré par le Inductive Visual Miner

, 183 8.1.1 Besoin de vérifier et valider son système, FIGURE 7.31 -Génération du modèle réseau de Petri par les algorithmes Alpha (Alpha++), IVM et IM 8.1 Introduction, p.183

, 2État de l'art sur les techniques de vérification et de validation des systèmes, p.184

, Discussion de l'état de l'art sur les techniques de V&V : vers un cadre de V&V pour les IDSSs

.. .. Synthèse,

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;. Chapitre and . Couturier, Annexe : Méta-modèlesétudiés de processus, de produit et de traçabilité FIGURE 3 -Méta-modèle de processus pour la gestion des conflits [Ouertani, 2007] FIGURE 4 -Modèle de donnée pour la caractérisation de l'évolution de donnée, 2008.

. Thom, Les trois couches du méta-modèle BPPA [Martins and Zacarias, 2015] 9.b. Couche "Action" du méta-modèle BPPA [Martins and Zacarias, 2005.

. Wimmer, FIGURE 15 -Méta-modèle décrivant les concepts de base pour produire un modèle de produit orienté objet, FIGURE 9 -Méta-modèle BPPA pour modéliser les processus en se basant sur les pratiques quotidiennes [Martins and Zacarias, 2003.

, Il est vrai que dans le cas présent, les articles scientifiques sont très majoritairement lus et synthétisés pour comparer son travail aux ceux des autreséquipes de recherche, mais un manuscrit de thèse reste toujours la source la plus précieuse pour comprendre plus en détail le contexte, les objectifs et les contributions, entre autres, des autres travaux

, nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement aux processus de conception et de supervision des systèmes

, Magazineéconomique américain qui s'intéresse au business, investissement, technologie, entrepreneuriat, leadership et au style de vie

, Session de formation sur les meilleures pratiques en développement de produits, p.12

. Produit, le suivi 24h/24 et mise en sécurité des réseaux d'exploitation de gaz ou encore l'exemple des logiciels SaaS -Software as a Service -installés sur des serveurs distants plutôt que sur la machine de l'utilisateur. Ce dernier s'abonne au service et ne paie pas la licence d'utilisation de ces logiciels, p.16

, Ensemble d'éléments matériels et immatériels interagissant entre eux pour produire un produit ou un service

, Attentionà la différence sémantique entre concourante et concurrente, p.17

, Comme l'application BPR (Business Process Re-Engineering), développée par Ford Motor, ayant pour objectif de supporter le processus manuel existant visant le partage des améliorations de processus entre les usines d'assemblage de véhicules

. C&apos;est, une théorie qui montre comment les décideurs choisissent les alternatives qui impliquentà la fois le risque et l'incertitude

C. , qui pourrait se produire en prenant une mauvaise décision, dans la phase de choix de l'alternative pour l'éliminer ou au moins réduire sa probabilité

, Il s'agit de tout système pouvant s'écrire sous la forme d'uneéquation matricielle : AX = K où M est la matrice des coefficients, Y est le vecteur des constantes et X est le vecteur des inconnus

S. C&apos;est-un-ex-scientifique-chercheur-en-sciences-informatiquesà-l&apos;université-de, , p.44

, PROgrammation en LOGique, c'est un langage de programmation logique, p.47

. Unévènement-est-défini, commeétant quelque chose qui se produità un temps identifiable et qui peut etre capturée, 2015.

. C&apos;est, une structure ou un motif fréquemment rencontré lors de l'étude des données. Ce concept est détaillé dans les chapitres suivants, p.58

, Classement des constructeurs de Formule, vol.1, p.59

C. , qui se voit comme un programme codé en utilisant le langage de programmation VBA (Visual Basic for Applications), visantà automatiser un ensemble de décisions en se basant sur certaines conditions, p.59

, C'est une partie de logiciel permettant de résoudre un problème mathématique donné, p.59

, En effet, la sélection d'une mauvaise alternative aura un impact majeur sur la qualité du produit, le temps et le coût de son développement

. Ancien-pilote-américain, , p.68

, Agence chargée des réglementations de tous les aspects de l'aviation civile auxÉtats, p.68

, National Transportation Safety Board (Conseil national de la sécurité des transports en français) est une agence responsable des enquêtes sur les accidents de transport auxÉtats, p.69

. C&apos;est-une-loi-qui-déclare-que-le and . Développement, l'utilisation et le contrôle de l'énergie atomique doiventêtre orientés de manièreà promouvoir la paix dans le monde, p.70

. C&apos;est, une approche qui décrit un système commeétant un ensemble indivisible et le traite d'une manière globale non disjointe pour assurer un bon niveau de cohérence, p.71

, Un but est l'ensemble des déclarations décrivant les aspirations pour l'avenir d'une entreprise, tandis qu'un objectif est l'ensemble desétapes concrètes que l'entreprise doit suivre pour réaliser ses buts, p.71

, Bien que les notions de justesse (accuracy) et de précision (precision) sont souvent interchangeables, la différence sémantique est loin d'être négligeable. La justesse fait référenceà la proximité d'une valeur mesurée par rapportà une valeur standard et/ou connue. En revanche, la précision est la proximité de deux mesures ou plus, les unes aux autres. Si par exemple, les mesures sont proches de la valeur standard, mais sont très loin les unes des autres ; nous pouvons dire qu'elles sont justes mais imprécises

. C&apos;est-la-version-française-de-l&apos;incose, , p.75

, Ce sont des réseaux constitués d'ordinateurs autonomes connectésà l'aide d'un intergiciel de distribution. Ils permettent de partager différentes ressources et capacités pour fournir aux utilisateurs un réseau cohérent unique et intégré, p.78

, Ce type de systèmes permetà l'utilisateur de se concentrer sur les tâches plutôt que sur les outils d'implémentation (vû qu'il existe plusieurs langages et outils permettant d'implémenter les systèmes adoptant une approche orientée objet, Dans un système orienté objet, les données sont représentées par des objets réutilisables avec lesquels l'utilisateur et les autres objets du système peuvent interagir, p.78

, Toutes les normes OMG sont disponibles sur, p.78

. C&apos;est, un langage définissant le format d'échange de données textuelles, il est comprisà la fois par l'homme et la machine, vol.80

A. , Internet of Things -IoT) fait référence aux dispositifs qui collectent et partagent les données via internet sans interaction de type homme-homme ou homme-machine, 2009.

C. Lasi, une transformation cyber-physique de la fabrication, visantà promouvoir la fabrication connectée et la convergence numérique entre l'industrie, les entreprises et d'autres processus, 2014.

. Attentionà-la-différence-sémantique-entre-un-point-de-vue and . Vue, Le point de vue est un partitionnement du système (parties physique et logique par exemple), tandis que la vue est la représentation (projection) du système selon le point de vue considéré, p.88

. C&apos;est, un language de méta-modélisation basé sur la notion de classe, p.95

, Ce sont les périphériques ou les points de données constituant un point d'intersection/connexion au sein d'un réseau donné

, C'est un langage de programmation informatique orienté-objet basé sur les classes, p.96

, Laboratoire d'Ingénierie dirigée par les modèles pour les Systèmes Embarqués, p.97

, Unélément est dit source s'ilémet le lien, et est dit cible s'il reçoit le lien. En d'autres mots, la flèche du lien se dirige toujours vers l'élément cible, p.97

, Les deux types d'entreprise sont présents et investissent dans de nombreux pays, la différence majeure est que le premier type est plus axé sur l'adaptation de ses produits/serviceà chaque marché local, tandis que le deuxième commercialise ses produits en utilisant la même image/marque sur tous les marchés. Le lecteur peut se référer au travail de Azevedo and Bertrand, 2000.

. Ce and . Le-cambridge-dictionary-comme, En effet, ce sont des systèmes omniprésents intégrés dans l'environnement et dans les objets de tous les jours, au lieu de n'être utilisés que sur des ordinateurs, permettant ainsi une interaction plus naturelle et causale, 2003.

L. Produit, Apple watch" est un exemple d'une montre basée sur la technologie omniprésente

, En utilisant des techniques de satisfaction des contraintes comme la technique CSP (Constraint Satisfaction Problem

, Nous appelons déviation l'écart entre le produit fabriqué et le produit souhaité, p.121

. C&apos;est, une science traitant la quête de l'information dans un document, ou la quête des documents, des images

C. Une, , vol.124

, nous citons par exemple : les systèmes intelligents de décision (IDS -Intelligent Decision Systems), les systèmes d'aideà la décision basés sur les connaissances (KBDSS -Knowledge-Based Decision Support Systems), les systèmes d'aideà la décision actifs (Active DSSs) et les systèmes cognitifs conjoints, Join Cognitive Systems, 2008.

, prétendue" est utilisé ici parce que les décisions venant d'être prises (après uneéventuelle analyse décisionnelle) sont jugéesêtre bonnes. Toutefois, l'évaluation objective n'aura lieu qu'après l'implémentation de ces décisions et l'étude de leur performance

, Ou patron, c'est une exécution possible et complète du processus, de son débutà sa fin. Ce concept sera discuté plus en détails dans les sections suivantes

, Plusieurs standards et approches existent, nous avons cité deux pour justifier le choix de ne pas imposer un protocole de communication

. C&apos;est, En d'autres termes, une machine peut appeler, sans intervention humaine, les services offerts par d'autres machines via internet et indépendamment des plates-formes et des langages utilisés, 2003.

. Stevens, Une des deux machines sera le serveur qui, après avoir accepté la demande de connexion,écoute la demande de l'autre machine appelée client et fournit la réponse appropriée, 2004.

, La première voit que ce dernier est une des techniques utilisées pour fouiller dans les données, tandis que la deuxièmeéquipe assure que l'apprentissage automatique utilise les techniques de la fouille de données pour construire un modèle permettant la prédiction des situations futures. Nous partageons l'avis de la premièreéquipe puisque la fouille de données, ayantété introduite en 1930 sous le nom de "Knowledge discovery, Deux grandes parties se distinguent quand il s'agit de comparer la fouille de données et l'apprentissage automatique

F. De-ce, nous considérons que l'apprentissage automatique est une des techniques utilisées par la fouille de données

, Noter que l'existence de l'élément < (d g) > dans la séquence S 4 du Tableau 7.4 ne pose pas de problème si nous cherchons des patterns qui ne sont pas nécessairement contigus, p.136

, En effet, le label existe lorsqu'il s'agit de l'apprentissage supervisé ou semi-supervisé, il est en revanche non présent lorsqu'il s'agit de l'apprentissage non-supervisé, Car l'existence du label dépend de la nature du jeu de données et du type d'apprentissage, p.137

. C&apos;est-un-jeu-de-société-d&apos;origine-indienne, , p.142

A. Van-der, Enterprise Resource Planning) comme le SAP, les systèmes CRM (Customer Relationship Management) comme Microsoft Dynamics CRM et les systèmes PDM (Product Data Management) comme Windchill, entre autres [van der Aalst and Gunther, Nous citons comme exemple de PAISs, les systèmes ERP, 2007.

, Ou Business Process Execution Language, c'est un langage basé sur le standard XML, qui permet aux services web d'interconnecter et de partager les données dans une architecture orientée services (Service-Oriented Architecture -SOA), p.144

, Cette référence n'est pas celle qui a premièrement introduit le concept, nous l'avons citée parce qu'elle définit ce dernier,étant sujetà plusieurs interprétations, d'une façon simple et pertinente, p.147

C. Wu, ] qui voient la fouille desépisodes comme un ensemble totalement ordonné d'activités, et conformémentà Mannila et al. [1997] qui considèrent l'ordre partiel dans la définition, p.147, 2013.

, Le calcul des indices de support "s" et de confiance "c" n'est pas rigoureux, les valeurs sont donnéesà titre d'exemple

, Nous avons construit ce modèle de processus en adoptant BPMN comme langage de modélisation et en utilisant l, p.151

, Or et Xor comme décrit dans le Tableau 6.1, donnant ainsi lieuà plusieurs patterns dont chacun fait référenceà un choix d'exécution possible. De plus, notre exemple illustratif considère la possibilité de la présence des mêmes activités dans des patterns différents, En effet, notre exemple d'illustration considère toutes les jonctions possibles : And

, Les traces (ou patterns) du processus illustratif de la Figure 7.22 sont instanciéesà partir du méta-modèle de trace, p.151

, Il est aussi possible que la variable de contexte concernant la ressource humaine ne soit pas son nom mais plutôt sa compétence principale ou son rôle, entre autres

&. &amp;&amp;&quot;-est-le-&quot;, ==" s'utilise pour vérifier l'égalité contrairementà "=" qui s'utilise pour affecter une variableà une autre. (a! = b) revientà dire que a = b, p.152

, Le premier est liéà une limite conceptuelle (comme l'absence d'une méthode permettant de résoudre une problématique donnée), tandis que le deuxième est liéà une limite technologique (comme l'absence d'une application permettant l'implémentation de la méthode identifiée, p.154

. Extensible-markup-language, , p.154

, Préparer une tarte ronde au chocolat età trois couches en suivant la méthode de Widad la pâtissière" et

, La transformation permet le passage d'un modèle conformeà un certain méta-modèle "x",à un autre modèle conforme au même méta-modèle "x". En revanche, la projection permet de passer d'un modèle conformeà un certain méta-modèle "x",à un autre modèle conformeà un autre méta-modèle "y, p.156

, ou XML Schema Definition, il permet de représenter l'inter-relation entre les attributs et leséléments d'un objet XML, p.156

, Ce nombre paraît toutà fait acceptable pour tester la proposition et la précision des algorithmes de fouille de processus choisis. Cependant, pour découvrir les processus réels avec un niveau supérieur de certitude, il faut considérer un nombre de trace beaucoup plus important (13087 traces sont considérées pourétudier le processus de demande de prêt

, Cette intégration permet de combiner les plugins dévéloppés avec les autres plugins proposés par ProM. En outre, elle permet de visualiser, graphiquement, les résultats des plugins en choisissant une des perspectives proposées par ProM, En effet, les nouveaux plugins développés peuventêtre intégrésà l'environnement ProM

, La conformité entre un modèle et un journal desévénements est

, Qui est introduit pour lever les limites de l'algorithme alpha, p.161

, Appelée aussi Tau split, c'est une activité fantôme qui permet d'exprimer la logique "Or" tout en permettant au modèle réseau de Petri d'être conformeà son méta-modèle

, Ce sont les propriétés ou les règles qui ne changent pas dans un journal desévénements

, Nous les avons construitesà la main, aléatoirement sans suivre une logique définie pour ne pas impacter les résultats de la prédiction

, En effet, desétudes sur la fiabilité humaine ont montré que les personnes formées pour exécuter une activité donnée, commettent environ uneà trois erreurs par heure dans les meilleurs scénarios, 2017.

, Ou Intelligent Decision-Making Support Systems, c'est une appellationéquivalenteà l'IDSS que nous utilisons

, En Anglais Data accuracy, il s'agit ici de vérifier que les données sont correctes (conformesà la réalité) et présentées d'une façon non

, Il s'agit ici de vérifier que la donnée aideraà prendre la bonne décision : http://leadsift.com/ how-to-determine-what-data-is-relevant-and-what-is-distracting/. Ceci est vérifié parce que les données (traces) que nous considérons sont issues du méta-modèle de trace qui met enévidence les données les plus intéressantes a capturer lors de l, En Anglais : Data relevance

D. Le-choix, utiliser ce protocole est fait par les entreprises et laboratoires impliqués dans le projet